第七章
Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is under-going constant changes both in form and content.
The content is even more unstable than the forms.
Word-meaning changes by modes if extension， narrowing， degradation， elevation and transfer. of these， extension and narrowing are by far the most common.
1.Extension （generalization）——is a term referring to the widening of meaning. It is a process by which a word， which originally had a specialized meaning， has now become generalized.
Word old meaning now meaning
Manuscript handwriting any author’s writing whether written by hand or typed
with a type-writer or a word-processor
Fabulous resembling a fable incredible， marvelous
Barn a place for storing only barley storeroom
Picture painting include “drawings” and even “photographs”。
Mill place for grinding into flour place where things are made
Journal daily paper periodical
Butcher one who kills goats one who kills animals
Companion one who shares bread a company
。 A large proportion of polysemic words of modern English have their meanings extended sometimes in the course of development. Some words are generalized to such an extent that they can mean almost anything.
Word old meaning now meaning
Thing a public assembly or a council anything
Business， concern， condition， matter， article， circumstance
。 Technical terms
Word old meaning now meaning
Alibi （a legal term） plea that the accused is not at the place excuse
When the crime is committed
Allergic （a medical term） too sensitive to medicine averse or disinclined to
Feedback （computer term） response
。 From proper nouns
Word old meaning now meaning
Lynch the Lynch’s Law kill without lawful trial
Sandwish a gambler’s name to denote a kind of fast place or squeeze between
Food
Vandal a member of an East Germanic tribe malicious destruction of a thing
A person of such behaviour
V. vandalize
Adj. Vandalic/vandalistic
n. vandalization/vandalism
2. Narrowing （specialization） ——is a term referring to the shrinking of meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense.
Word old meaning now meaning
Deer animal
Corn grain maize
Garage any safe place a place for storing cars
Liquor liquid alcoholic drink
Disease discomfort illness
Poison drink poisonous drink
Wife woman a married woman
Accident event unfortunate event
Girl young person of either sex female young person
。 Turn into a proper nouns
The City business center of London
The Peninsula Iberian Peninsula
The Prophet Mohammed
。 For economy， some phrases are shortened and only one element of the original is left to retain the meaning of the whole.
e.g. a private = a private solider
a general = a general officer
an editorial = an editorial article
。 Material nouns
Word old meaning now meaning
Silver silver dollars
Glass cup-like container or mirror
Iron device for smoothing clothes
3.Elevation or amelioration——refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance.
Word old meaning now meaning
Nice ignorant —— foolish delightful， pleasant
Marshal / constable keeper of horses high-ranking army officer / policemen
Angle messenger messenger of God
Knight servant rank below baronet
Earl men count
Governor pilot head of a state
Fond foolish affectionate
Minister servant head of ministry
Shrewd evil， wickedness smart
Nimble be good at taking things without permission smart
Chamberlain servant high official of royal courts
Success result
4. Degradation or pejoration of meaning ——It is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense.
Word old meaning now meaning
Boor peasant rude， ill-mannered person
Churl peasant / free man uncultivated or mean person
Wench country girl prostitute
Hussy housewife woman of low morals
Villain person who worked in a villa evil or wicked person or scoundrel
Silly happy foolish
Knave boy dishonest person
Lewd ignorant lecherous
Criticize appraise find fault with
Lust pleasure sexual desire
5. Transfer —— words which were used to designate on thing but later changed to mean something else.
Word old meaning now meaning
Paper an African plant papyrus
。 Associated transfer
E.g. the lip of a wound
The tongue of a bell
The nose of a plane
Purse for money， dish for food， glass for cup
。 Between abstract and concrete meaning
Word old meaning now meaning
Aftermath second crop of grass after mowing consequence， result
Hope e.g. Clinton is the hope of the family.
。 Between subject and objective meaning
Word old meaning now meaning
Pitiful full of pity deserving pity
Dreadful / hateful subject meaning objective meaning
Fearful/ doubtful / suspicious subject and objective meaning
。 Transfer of sensations
E.g. clear-sounding （from sight to hearing）
Loud colours （from hearing to sight）
Sweet music （from taste to hearing）
6. Extra-linguistic Factors
1. Historical reason
。 A word is retained for a name though the meaning has changed because the reference has changed.
Word old meaning now meaning
Pen feather
Car two-wheel cart drown by horses and used automobile
in war
Computer person who computes electronic machine
。 Increased scientific knowledge and discovery are also important factors
Word old meaning now meaning
Sun the luminous heavenly body-one of the star around which the earth and other planets revolve
seven planets revolving around the earth
Atom any of the indivisible particles not the smallest and can be divided into even smaller
particles
2. Class reason. Language is just like a mirror， reflecting everything that exists in human society. It records the speech and attitude of different social classes. As a result， different social varieties of language have come into being.
Word old meaning now meaning
Churl， hussy， wench， villain ill-mannered or bad people
Democracy， revolution， liberalism， human rights， communism different meaning in different societies and to different
People
3. Psychological reason. The associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors. people change word-meaning owing to various psychological. Religious influence is another kind psychological need.
Word old meaning now meaning
Copperhead a venomous snake
7. Linguistic factors
1. Shortening
Gold for gold medal
Gas for coal gas
Bulb for light bulb
Private for private solider
2. Borrowing
Deer / animal / beast
Pig / pork， sheep / mutton， cattle / beef
Bird / fowl， dog / hound， boy / knave， chair / stool
3. Analogy
Fortuitous happening by chance， accident fortunate
Fruition a pleasure obtaining from using or possessing something
词汇学并不是很难过，至少是比较死的东西，背背书就可以了。但要是想pass的话，整本书看是芍药看过三遍。否则不可能过的。
看书的过程中会有新的知识点出现，千万不要漏记哦！